How to Improve Reading Comprehension Free Essays

Tony Sandoval III American Military University Coll 100 Derrah Q. Cassidy How to Improve Reading Comprehension How to improve one’s understanding cognizance? Initial, one must realize what perusing pressure is, straightforward it is the demonstration of understanding what is being perused. â€Å"Learning how to peruse is presumably one of the most significant abilities that a youngster will secure in his/her lifetime† (Pardo, 2011). We will compose a custom exposition test on Step by step instructions to Improve Reading Comprehension or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now Despite the fact that it might sound simple, numerous individuals have troublesomely recalling and understanding what they read. To turn into an effective peruser, a kid must have the option to decipher the individual words on the page and should have the option to grasp the text† (McNamara, 2007). To peruse adequately pick a subject that will be intriguing, attempt to make sense of what you and the book share for all intents and purpose. At that point, focus on the material being peruse and build up a control way to deal with the perusing. Review the material by investigating it and figure out what the most significant pieces of the content are. Interruption after each passage to consider what was simply perused so the cerebrum can understand it. Next spotlight on the perusing speed one has. When this is done, test yourself over the material to guarantee it is being understood. This will get your mind attempting to focusing more often than not. When perusing, one must be eager to push their self past where they are at. â€Å"Reading is an uncommon accomplishment when one thinks about the quantity of levels and parts that must be aced. Consider the stuff to peruse a basic story. The words contain graphemes, phonemes and morphemes† (McNamara, 2007). A great many people won't see half of what was simply said or composed. Despite the fact that the perusing material may be hard, gradually the words will make since once they are sorted out in a manner that could be seen better. Additionally, attempt to think ahead and focus on specific parts to get your mind taking a shot at focusing on what is being perused. While perusing, feature what may be the most significant piece of the content. This will assist with figuring out what is being said in the perusing. A few perusers should pose inquiries while perusing. This will help them when piecing portions of the central matter of the article together to bode well. While perusing, stop after each passage to help consider the significance of what was simply perused. â€Å"Proficient perusers don’t simply furrow ahead through content when it doesn’t bode well †they stop and use â€Å"fix-up† systems to reestablish their comprehension. One of the most significant fix-up apparatuses is rehashing, with educators exhibiting to understudies an assortment of approaches to rehash text so as to fix meaning† (Zimmerman Keene, 2007). This will help assemble contemplations about the material and sparkle some light regarding the matter. While perusing focus on what data is being put out in the article. Now and again perusers will have questions rung a bell and the peruser must discover the appropriate responses. On the off chance that they have clingy notes to write down things, the peruser will have the option to review the data. â€Å"A reader’s fruitful perception of text material is confirm by the portrayal that, at the very least, is reasonable enough to represent all the data unequivocally introduced in the text† (McNamara, 2007). The peruser should then figure out and organizes data from the ocean of words that is in the content. This will help show that understanding can be reviewed and be comprehended by the peruser. The peruser ought to every now and again sum up the perusing. This powers the peruser to rearrange the data in a manner that is reasonable to them. Despite the fact that perusing can be fun, it can likewise be tedious. The achievement of perusing appreciation relies upon the variables of what data is being gone into the cerebrum and what the mind can do with it. It is additionally essential to comprehend what you are perusing to help improve your speed. This expertise is gained through long periods of learning. On the off chance that speed perusing isn't the best, don't stress in light of the fact that there are numerous tips that can support a peruser. One great tip is known as the hand stunt. The peruser should put the palm of their hand level against the understanding surface. Move the hand with the goal that the primary line of text being perused is over the side of the hand. Gradually move the palm to criticize the expressions of the content at a customary speed so the peruser can see the words that are being uncovered. Next, is the finger stunt with this strategy the peruser should put the pointer on the main gathering of words that is going to be perused. Move the finger in an unpredictable way from the earliest starting point of the sentence as far as possible. This encourages the peruser to concentrate on perusing gatherings of words rather than separately. Another great tip to improve as a peruser is the sleight of hand. Get a file card and spot it over the principal sentence. At that point gradually start moving it in a downwards, covering what was simply perused. This encourages the peruser to focus on what was simply perused since they won't have the chance to return to the words. After the peruser has completed, figure out what was found out. Allow the peruser to share what they have perused two by two or little gatherings. At that point have them test themselves on the primary concerns of the material. Inform a companion regarding it. By doing this, the peruser should attempt to review the significant data in their own words. This will assist them with remembering and give a more profound understanding into the point. In the event that the two individuals have perused a similar material, the companion could give great criticism to guarantee that the peruser fathoms what was being perused. The objective of having them talk about this is to include more individuals so they would all be able to ensure they can understand the perusing. This procedure will cement the information in the brain and give the peruser a superior review of the data. Additionally incorporate any contemplations that may have flown into your mind and examine the data. The proof that perusing understanding can be educated and learned is persuading. â€Å"Teachers need to ensure that youngsters know about the entirety of the understanding techniques and that they are given a lot of chances to utilize them† (Pardo, 2011). You’ll accomplish the best outcomes utilizing the arrangement of techniques in this paper. This will help urge the peruser to envision what is to come, give close consideration to whether they are understanding and every now and again respite to sum up, returning to fill in holes in the data. The peruser ought to consider utilizing the techniques referenced previously. Inspecting these individual aptitudes of cognizance can rapidly enable the peruser to see, that the aptitudes require higher reasoning and a capacity to see the material that has been perused. Book index McNamara, D. S. (2007). Perusing Comprehension Strategies : Theories, Interventions, and Technologies. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Pardo, L. (2011). Expanding Reading Comprehension Through The Explicit Teaching Of Reading Strategies: Is There A Difference Among The Genders? Undertaking Innovation, Inc 13. Zimmerman, S. , Keene, E. (2007). Recovered September 30, 2011, from Waht Are the Seven Reading Comprehension Strategies? Recovered from http://www. choiceliteracy. com/open/144. cfm The most effective method to refer to How to Improve Reading Comprehension, Papers

Where Can I Find Someone to Write My College Paper?

Where Can I Find Someone to Write My College Paper?Finding a good essay writer for hire is not always easy, and many people ask themselves: Where can I find someone to write my college paper? There are many freelance writing services out there that you can get services from and many of them will give you a list of writers in your area that are looking for work.College papers are usually very long and this can make it difficult to find someone to write the paper for you. Finding someone to write your college paper should be a last resort, but sometimes this just does not happen. This article will discuss some ways to find someone to write your college paper for you.The first thing that you can do is look at your local newspaper and see if there is a college students' publication. Many times they will have an essay writer of their own that you can contact to get an assignment for your college paper. A lot of these publications will also have an editor or even a former student that will be willing to write your paper for you. If you do not know anyone in your local community that can help you with this, you can also search on the internet and look for websites that offer to do the writing for you.The second way that you can find someone to write your college paper is to look online. There are many websites that offer to write your college paper for you for a certain fee. This may cost a little bit more than the newspapers, but it is usually worth it when you are able to get your college papers done in a timely manner and keep your grade points up.Online writing companies are also a great way to get articles written for you. These companies will also send your finished product directly to your professors and there are usually no fees or charges involved.The final way that you can find someone to write your college paper is by word of mouth. Talk to your friends, professors, and any other person that you know that is writing their college papers to see if they would be willing to do an article for you for free.Finding a good essay writer for hire is not always easy, and many people ask themselves: Where can I find someone to write my college paper? There are many freelance writing services out there that you can get services from and many of them will give you a list of writers in your area that are looking for work.College papers are usually very long and this can make it difficult to find someone to write the paper for you. Finding someone to write your college paper should be a last resort, but sometimes this just does not happen.

What impact did Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam have on the civil rights movement Example For Students

What effect did Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam have on the social equality development What effect did Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam have on the social liberties development in the United States of America in the period somewhere in the range of 1960 and 1965? In the United States of America (USA), in the period 1960 to 1965, the Nation of Islam and Malcolm X strongly affected the social liberties development. Through the intense lessons of Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X, African-Americans increased a more prominent attention to the horrendous barbarities submitted against them by Caucasians since the commencement of the USA and explicitly during the social equality battle, and this affected on the social equality development as issues, for example, racial viciousness and disparity were uncovered by the lessons of the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam engaged numerous African-Americans to go to bat for their human rights, while Malcolm X gave a solid guide to African-Americans of somebody who was eager to go to bat for the key privileges of the race which emphatically affected on the social equality development. We will compose a custom exposition on What effect did Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam have on the social equality development explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now The Nation of Islam offered an extraordinary option to the peaceful methodology of Martin Luther King Junior and other social equality gatherings and set the expectations for equity of King unquestionably progressively worthy to Caucasians, regardless of the way that the feeling of militancy that went with Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam gave the African-American individuals more noteworthy voice, quality and solidarity inside the network, the outrageous perspectives on the Nation of Islam adversely affected upon the social equality development in the period 1960 to 1965, as their convictions clashed with other social liberties gatherings and pioneers which gained ground and solidarity harder to accomplish inside African-American culture. Along these lines, the monumental nearness of Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam in the USA somewhere in the range of 1960 and 1965, strongly affected the social equality development notwithstanding the positive and negative reactions that were evo ked. The lessons of the Nation of Islam and Malcolm X affected on the social equality development as they uncovered and made a more prominent consciousness of the monstrosities submitted against African-Americans since their commencement. Dark Muslims accept that the white man is the demon 1 and that Caucasians after some time had burglarized, assaulted, beaten and wrecked the Black man 2. This way of thinking emphatically engaged numerous African-Americans, as in addition to the fact that it revealed the violations that had been submitted by Caucasians however it additionally set forward the possibility that African-Americans are better than Caucasians. The Nation of Islams lessons were regularly acknowledged by those in the most powerless and misused situation inside society as they found the lessons and ways of thinking of Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X applicable and genuine to their encounters. This applied to a youthful Malcolm X who in his self-portrayal expressed, when I recollected I was unable to recall a solitary beneficial thing a white individual had ever done to me 3. Outrages submitted against African-Americans by Caucasians incorporate the horrendous lynchings that happened over the USA, with roughly 3,445 African-American lynshings somewhere in the range of 1882 and 1968. The seriousness, hardness and bigotry of the lynchings outlines the outrages that the Nation of Islam uncovered in its lessons, normally, the casualties were hung or consumed to death by hordes of White vigilantes, as often as possible before a large number of onlookers, a considerable lot of whom would take bits of the dead people body as trinkets to help recollect the fantastic occasion 4. The way of thinking of the Nation of Islam uncovered the abominations that Caucasians had submitted against African-Americans since forever and in the period somewhere in the range of 1960 and 1965, and in this way both the Nation of Islam and Malcolm X affected emphatically upon the social liberties development. .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 , .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .postImageUrl , .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .focused content territory { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 , .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16:hover , .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16:visited , .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16:active { border:0!important; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; darkness: 1; progress: mistiness 250ms; webkit-progress: obscurity 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16:active , .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16:hover { murkiness: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-change: mistiness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .focused content zone { width: 100%; position: rel ative; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content beautification: underline; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; outskirt sweep: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-stature: 26px; moz-outskirt range: 3px; content adjust: focus; content design: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/basic arrow.png)no-rehash; position: outright; right: 0; top: 0; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .ucf35a1a 44a870c66f3b369682d337f16 .focused content { show: table; stature: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .ucf35a1a44a870c66f3b369682d337f16:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Men And Women Argumentative EssayThe solid lessons of the Nation of Islam and the authority of Malcolm X affected on the social equality development as it engaged numerous African-Americans inside the network to support their principal human rights and challenge the individuals who undermine these rights. The lessons of Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam are that the African-American race is better than the Caucasian race, and that the Black Man will suffer always, for he is conceived in honorableness 5. This way of thinking endorsed more prominent quality inside the African-American people group previously and during the social equality crusade and subsequently decidedly affected upon the social liberties development as African-Americans were urged to take a stab at the significance and incomparability that African-Americans had been denied of, as indicated by the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam likewise utilized African history to join together and engage African-Americans who had restricted information on any racial history, as Malcolm X expressed, something that caused the Black Muslim development to develop was its accentuation upon things African. African blood, African source, African culture, African ties. What's more, youd be astounded we found that profound inside the subliminal of the dark man in this nation, he is still more African than he is American. 6 The unified African-American front of the Nation of Islam is delineated in the foundation of This frank and solid administration of Malcolm X, comparatively affected upon the social liberties development as African-Americans followed the model Malcolm X set as showed through the declaration of an activist after Malcolm Xs demise, What made Malcolm X an extraordinary man, is that he had the guts to state what nine-tenths of American Negroes might want to state yet dont have the guts to state. 7 Malcolm X pulled in numerous African-Americans to the Nation of Islam through advancing a religion that was seen to go to bat for African-Americans against Caucasians, I put stock in a religion that trusts in opportunity. Whenever I need to acknowledge a religion that wont let me take on a conflict for my kin, I state to damnation with that religion 8. This solid quality and desire that Malcolm X passed on engaged African-Americans and along these lines, there was a more prominent African-American voice inside the USA in the time of 1960-1965. The developing nearness of the Nation of Islam with its extraordinary and regularly saw hostile perspectives on its individuals in the USA somewhere in the range of 1960 and 1965, permitted crafted by King and associations needing joining, to get more extensive acknowledgment as an option in contrast to the dark force and dark patriotism that the Nation of Islam advertised. NAACP, SCLC. Likewise, many pitted Malcolm X against King and the favored option for African-Americans and clearly Caucasians was King. Malcolm X understood that the apparently serious and radical Black Muslims made King undeniably progressively adequate to Caucasians, At one time the whites in the United States considered him a racialist, and fanatic, and a Communist. At that point the Black Muslims tagged along and the whites expressed gratitude toward the Lord for Martin Luther King 9. The serious and supremacist perspectives on the Nation of Islam and Malcolm X affected on the social liberties development as it regularly made the peaceful equalitarian perspectives on King and other social liberties bunches increasingly worthy to Caucasians and numerous African-Americans in the USA somewhere in the range of 1960 and 1965. The outrageous perspective on Caucasians taken by Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam, contrarily affected on the social equality development, as it removed the connection between the two races. As the Nation of Islam saw Caucasians with such abhorrence and outrage, the capacity of Muslim pioneers su

Employers, Students Differ On Preparedness

Employers, Students Differ On Preparedness by: Jeff Schmitt on February 10, 2015 | 0 Comments Comments 682 Views February 10, 2015It’s the never-ending conflict. Young people, brimming with ideals, passion, and ideas, charge into the world. They call the old guard â€Å"corrupt,† â€Å"lazy,† and â€Å"narrow-minded.† And they believe their vision will redeem past sins. Alas, previous generations – recognizing limitations and worn down from disappointments – simply shake their heads. They label their successors as â€Å"naà ¯ve,† â€Å"self-indulgent,† and â€Å"impulsive.† â€Å"They just don’t know what they don’t know,† they sigh.You’ll find that dichotomy between recent graduates and employers too. Many students think their educations have honed their soft skills and prepared them to think critically. And employers just sigh and mutter to themselves, â€Å"You have so much left to le arn.†That was the main takeaway from a recent study conducted by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU). Here, upperclassmen gave themselves far higher marks in areas like creativity and communication skills than employers did. At the same time, students valued in vogue staples like cultural and global awareness far more than employers.STUDENTS CONSISTENTLY RANK THEIR SKILLS HIGHER THAN EMPLOYERSThe study was based on online surveys held with 400 executives and 613 students in late 2014. The employer portion featured companies and nonprofits with 25 or more employees, where 25% or more new hires held an associate’s or bachelor’s degree. The students sampled were within a year of completing their degree. Nearly half of these students attended four-year public colleges, with the rest nearly evenly split between four-year colleges and two-year colleges.In this survey, employers and students diverged sharply when it came to student preparedness. The biggest gap occurred with critical and analytical thinking, where 66% of students considered themselves to be â€Å"well-prepared† in this area, compared to 26% of employers (who were basing their responses off experiences with recent grads). Similarly, there was a 38% discrepancy between how employers and students viewed their written communication skills. In fact, the two groups varied between 18%-34% across the board, with students consistently ranking their skills much higher than employers. In fact, the smallest differential occurred in the â€Å"staying current with technologies† category, where the variation was only nine percent. Page 1 of 3123 »

Essay about Morality of Gun Control - 757 Words

Morality of Gun Control I realize you cannot legislate morality. I agree with that 100 percent. Yes, saying things like Thou shall be moral is foolish, but other things can be done. We have to get back to our roots and become more civil and moral. Throughout recent history our society has continually loosened its moral bonds until we have arrived at the everything goes attitudes of today. This loosening simply has to be reversed. Let me say that this will be a difficult task, but our society MUST put common sense and civility forefront of todays efforts nationwide. It will be harder to fight then any war. We must have an awakening or things will continue to go downhill. Would you agree on that? First of all, I do not have all†¦show more content†¦What has filled the void from the absence of this ever-so-valuable time? Media has filled the gap. This includes everything from TV, movies, video games, music, etc etc. Afterall the media is led by people who grew up without knowing what is right or wrong, just like the people watching it. You now have a society in which few know what is right and wrong because this cycle continues on faster and faster. Believe it or not, I believe there was a time that had universal morals. These include lots of small things, but they are what consisted of the moral foundation we have lost. These small things include street manners, table manners, specific courtesys each directed toward men and women, clothing courtesys, trustworthiness (ever hear of the time when a handshake was worth more than a signature?), a respect of each others doings and business, the Golden Rule, spoken courtesys...the list goes on and on. It is not the medias f ault only, they are only the most visable layer. WE, and I repeat WE, the society, are the ones that tolerated or even let the media do something questionable to begin with. WE are the ones that watch and listen to their programs, WE are the ones who give them money, WE are the ones who failed to voice our concerns on something they were airing, etc etc. Now, in a society that has evolved to which everything goes, Hollywood doesnt think twice about showing negatively-influencing movies, or the record companies and singers (especiallyShow MoreRelatedImmigration And Moral Issues : Gun Control And Immigration1263 Words   |  6 Pagesthat are currently being highly debated in the U.S. Government, are gun control and immigration. In the U.S. our two political are arguing two completely different viewpoints, that can be compared to the moral ideas of Emanuel Kant and Jeremey Bentham. Bentham’s approach, also know as the utilitarian approach, would agree with the Democratic Party that their should be gun control due to the massive amount of pain afflicted due to guns. He would also agree with the Democratic Party when it comes to immigrationRead MoreIs Gun Control The Answer?1612 Words   |  7 PagesIs Gun Control The Answer? The Second Amendment of the United States Constitution: A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. This amendment, a part of the constitution known as the Bill of Rights, describes the protection of the right people to possess whatever arms they wish. The limits of this bill are fiercely debated among pro-gun and anti-gun supporters, as well as debates withinRead More Gun Control Essay735 Words   |  3 Pages Gun Control in the United States nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;News is all around us and is readily available to everyone. 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She believes the problem isn’t the guns themselves, but the mentally disturbed people. Coulter credits the declining mental health system as the main setback. She supports her argument by providing tragic examplesRead MoreThe Effects Of Gun Control On Our Society Essay1671 Words   |  7 PagesFor my family gun control is a picky topic. Especially for myself who is pro-gun and my father who is anti-gun to a slight degree. I believe that if you want to own a weapon or firearm of any type, as long as it is within the law, go for it. Whereas my father believes that you should only need to own a pistol, no semi-automatic rifles of shotguns. That is to say, he feels that rifles are not applicable in our daily life, and that we don’t need them. I do own a good nu mber of knives, and I will carry

An Online Analysis Of A Company - 1582 Words

Conducting an online analysis of a company can help understand the reputation this brand has to other consumers. Victoria Secret is mainly known for its women lingerie, beauty products, swimwear, and workout apparel. Recently there is new buzz from L Brands Inc., the parent company of Victoria’s Secret that they are changing their whole entire brand image and what they plan on selling. These changes occurred this April through May in hopes to reconstruct the company’s focus on what to sell. The main changes taking place are the changes within the company, the removal of swimwear and other non-core business items, and the removal of promotion items. According to the Trefis Team in Forbes, they talk about all the changes Victoria s Secret has went through with. They show how the company is shifting in a new direction by saying, The VS business will be further categorized into Victoria’s Secret Lingerie, PINK, and Victoria’s Secret Beauty. Each of these divisions will be managed by separate executives who will report to the CEO. Also, the company had been repositioning its Beauty business since last year, given its weak performance †¦ Hence, the brand is trying to shift its focus from the fantasy beauty products to fine fragrance and high-end body care products (Trefis Team, 2016). This statement made on Forbes shows the new divisions within this company and how they will be managed. Also they discuss how the beauty industry is changing in Victoria’s Secret. Forbes discussesShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Showrooming At Best Buy, Details The Struggles Of Brick And Mortar Companies Competing With Online Retailers Essay1245 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction: The following case analysis, Showrooming at Best Buy, details the struggles of brick and mortar companies competing with online retailers. Best Buy, a major retailer of electronic goods, decides to permanently price match their online competitors. 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Company’s stakeholders Analysis: The company important stakeholders are staff and volunteers, government, customers, supports (donor) and environment.First of all, staff and volunteers are

Man Overcoming Great Obstacles Essay Example For Students

Man Overcoming Great Obstacles Essay Some believe to live is to suffer, and in Hemingways The Old Man And The Sea this philosophy is dealt with and viewed in many situations. In this poignant short novel Ernest Hemingway beautifully illustrates the trials and tribulations of everyday man, through Santiagos struggle at sea. The old mans adventure with the marlin is one of loss, pride, and achievement all combined into one emotional fight for life itself. Hemingways use of allegory in The Old Man And The Sea establishes many deeper aspects that man struggles with in everyday life. The numerous hardships and battles Santiago encounters on the sea can be viewed as conflicts man is forced to deal with in his lifetime. A use of symbolism that proves an example of struggle in life is seen when the old man reflects on Manolin. When Santiago is at sea and hooks the great fish he feels he needs the virile power of the young boy to catch the marlin. Manolin the young boy often helped the old man on other fishing ventures, but he does not have him then and reflects on this in this quote But you havent got the boy he thought. You have only yourself, and you had better work back to the last line now, in the dark, and cut it and hook up the two reserve coils.1. This quote is symbolic of making due in life with what you have. Santiago does not have Manolins help; therefore he must struggle and catch the great fish on his own. Many times in ones life we are not given every advantage to ease our pain and suffering when one is striving for achievement. The old man does not allow in pity for not having Manolin, but rather is very rational about the situation. This represents the fact that in life one must move on and put great effort into tasks that are seemingly impossible when done independently. The absence of Manolin places emphasis on dealing with struggle when man has little to fight with. As Hemingway uses other figures to establish struggle, he also utilizes Santiagos inner thoughts as symbolism. In amidst the battle at sea with the old man and the marlin he has a great revelation. This excerpt is Santiagos opinion on his battle with the fish But he seems calm, he thought, and following his plan. But what is his plan, he thought. And what is mine? Mine I must improvise because of his great size. If he will jump I can kill him. But he stays down forever. Then I will stay down with him forever.2. This quote is an excellent summation of one of the main ideals of The Old Man And The Sea. Through allegory Hemingway establishes the fact that life is unpredictable. Santiago cannot predict the marlins actions; therefore he considers possible scenarios and his reactions to them. This is similar to how in life one cannot truly know the actions of other people, but one only knows his own actions. This quote also shows how in life a person receives both the good and the bad. In one scenario the fish would jump and be caught, but in another the fish would stay down forever as would the old man The Old Man And The Sea often represents how greatly the actions of others can impact our lives both negatively and positively. Although Santiago eventually catches the marlin his triumph is dampened when the sharks ensue on his achievement. This statement shows a shark eating the freshly caught marlin, but possesses a much deeper meaning The sharks head was out of water and his back was coming out and the old man could hear the noise of skin and flesh ripping on the big fish when he rammed the harpoon down onto the sharks head at a spot where the line between his eyes intersected with the line that ran straight back from his nose. 3. In this quote Santiago is seen defending his accomplishment with great courage and ferocity. .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd , .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .postImageUrl , .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd , .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd:hover , .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd:visited , .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd:active { border:0!important; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd:active , .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u73ed90ea11f7ef7e5542bd7b457a55bd:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: FOR MORE Essay Santiago experienced a personal triumph to catch the great fish, and takes great pride in his prize marlin. This excerpt is allegorical because man is .

Stanley V. Illinois Essay Example For Students

Stanley V. Illinois Essay Stanley v. Illinois92 S.Ct. 1208 (1972)Nature of Case: The plaintiff is Peter Stanley. He said that his rights to equal protection of the law under the 14th Amendment have been violated. He believes that the Illinois law that makes children of unwed fathers wards of the state upon death of the mother violated his rights. Facts: Joan and Peter Stanley lived intermittently together for 18 years, in which they had 3 children. When Joan Stanley died, Stanleys children were declared wards of the state and placed with court appointed guardians after a dependency hearing by the State of Illinois. Stanley claimed that he had never been shown to be an unfit parent. He believed that since married fathers and unwed mothers could not be deprived of their children without proving this, neither should he. The Illinois Supreme Court accepted the fact that Peter Stanleys unfitness had not been proven but rejected that he was deprived of his rights under the 14th amendment. We will write a custom essay on Stanley V. Illinois specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Issue: Did the State of Illinois violate the Equal Protection Clause when it denied Peter Stanley a hearing on his fitness to keep his children?Holding: Yes, a hearing is guaranteed by equal protection under the law, for both married fathers and unwed mothers unwed fathers. Rule:1. Justice White, speaking for the majority believes that the decision in this case is similar to Bell v. Burson, in which held that the state could not deprive a person of there drivers license pertaining to a speeding violation without a hearing. He stated: The states interest in caring for Stanleys children is de minimis if Stanley is shown to be a fit father. It insists on presuming rather than proving Stanleys unfitness solely because it is more convenient to presume than to prove. 2. They concluded that all Illinois parents are constitutionally entitled to a hearing on their fitness before their children are removed from their custody.Denying such a hearing to Stanley and those like him while granting it to other Illinois parents is inescapably contrary to the Equal Protection Clause. 3. The rule of law that justifies the holding of the case is: It is cardinal with us that the custody, care, and nurture of the child reside first in the parents, whose primary function and f reedom include preparation for obligations the state may neither supply nor hinder (Prince v. Mass.). 4. The integrity of the family unit has found protection in the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Ninth Amendment. We observed that the State registers no gain towards its declared goals when it separates children from the custody of fit parents. 5. Indeed, if Stanley is a fit father, the state spites its own articulated goals when it needlessly separates him from his family.One might fairly say of the Bill of Rights in general, and the Due Process Clause in particular, that they were designed to protect the fragile values of a vulnerable citizenry from the overbearing concern for efficiency and efficacy that may characterize praiseworthy government officials no less, and perhaps more, the mediocre ones.Words/ Pages : 536 / 24

Physician Assisted Suicides essays

Physician Assisted Suicides essays Euthanasia. . ., Specifically, Physician Assisted Suicides. . . Imagine yourself suffering a debilitating disease, such as cancer, of which there is no cure. Imagine the disease spreading through your body and producing pain, so severe, that there is no drug to stop it. The medical doctors have all told you there is nothing more they can do. All that is left is for you to lie dying in a hospital or home and rithing in pain. Given these circumstances, would it comfort you to know you have a choice in how much pain you want to suffer and when YOU want to end it all? Im talking about Euthanasis. . . Euthanasia is the act of taking ones life, either passively (by quitting eating or drug/alcohol abuse) or actively (. (DEFINE) The simple . . . . . . .. Specifically, physicians assisted suicides. Suicide is legal in all 50 states. Meaning, one cannot be prosecuted for taking their own life. Yet, Physician assisted suicides are illegal in all but one state, Oregon. Public opinion for Physician Assisted Suicide is overwhelming in favor allowing the patient the right to have a doctor end their life. A Gallop poll, conducted in April, 1996 and again in June 1999, found that 75% and 76% respectively of adults in this country favor allowing doctors to end the lives of the terminally ill, upon request from the patient. However, in 1997, the Supreme Court struck down the constitutional right of all Americans to assisted suicides. Physician assisted suicides in the United States should be a legal right for all Americans and protected under the constitution. Id like to walk you through what the pro-life proponents believe and then identify, what I believe, would ensure a physician assisted suicide program should entail to ensure som e type of integrity. I think with specific guidelines, patients should have the right to choose and medical doctors should be allowed to assist the terminally ill to end their life. I be...

Why didn't the member states of the EU (European Union) simply create Essay

Why didn't the member states of the EU (European Union) simply create a United States of Europe after the Second World War - Essay Example By the time the war had finished, much of the continent lay in ruins. How was Europe to rebuild? This was a question on many peoples' lips after 1945. Some thought a massive federalist state, similar to the United States was the solution. Europeans could pool their wealth and have a single government. That idea fizzled. There was still too much distrust in the immediate post-war period for a United States of Europe to be created. What Europe chose to do instead was slowly, piece by piece, assemble a common market that would eventually keep the door open to a more federalist option some time in the future. Although some Europeans would have liked to have seen a federalist state in the aftermath of the war, there was simply too much distrust. On top of that, foreign armies occupied much of Germany. Each European countries priority was the rebuild itself before engaging on any political or economic experiment. The British scholar Alan Milward argues that the EC's founding fathers intend ed for their states to maintain sovereignty in the system. They did not want a federalist state. They felt that they should bind themselves together not to create a super-state but to compete in the international economy. In a sense, the initial institutions of the EC were designed to preserve national autonomy. As Dr. Milward said in his book The European Rescue of the Nation-State, "The reinvigorated nation-state had to choose the surrender of a degree of national sovereignty to sustain its reassertion . . .† (Milward 1992). The truth is that the people of Europe at this stage were still too nationalistic. They had survived a war that had hammered home their national identities. The heroes of the various resistance movements had all represented pure national ideals, and these men and women were heroes well into the 1950s. The truth is that the founding fathers of the EU were looking to maximize their trading power, not their political power. They wanted to regionalize Europe , not turn it into the United States. Over the years, regionalization has done a great deal to improve business productivity. It has generate wealth and been responsible for a great deal of social development. The leaders of the EU/EC were right to pursue it as the same can be said of the economic integration accomplished by Europe over the last twenty years. The comparative advantages Europe possesses were then main thing to be exploited, not the creation of a superstate (Case 1999). What a single country can do well, it often can do better with the help of its neighbours and friends. But there is much to be said for an integration that stops just short of federalism: this kind of integration is not just about economics: it is also about the cultural and social shifts that follow in the way of reducing tariffs, striking down boundaries and easing travel and communication. You do not need a federal state to do all of this, many Europeans believe. It is possible to create something d ifferent. That was the Europe many were satisfied with up until the 1990s. But then the push came for political reforms and more power being centralized in Britain. In a sense this was a betrayal of the founding father who always say a role for autonomous states at the heart of Europe. They did not want to create a United States of Europe and they knew that over-reach or excessive expansion can cause serious problems to under-developed institutions (Duff 2009). Changes involving integration need time. Today, as the EU looks to its frontiers, the temptation to expand is still there, but patience is need (Kaid 2008). The gains made by economic integration have worked wonders to increase economic integration, but they also bring risks which need to be considered too by policymakers. The United States of

LOVE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

LOVE - Essay Example The implementation of Adam Smith’s ideas of a free market economy, where the invisible hand would determine how, what and how much to produce in what quantities was a radical concept, as was his assertion that saving is better than consumption, giving rise to a capitalist economy. It was supported by David Ricardo’s Theory of Comparative Advantage as the basis for international trade and exchange. Modern societies depend on elected leaders and thinkers as they try to find solutions to our communal problems and bring a sense of order and belonging to our daily lives. This involves the formulation of policies that are in the public interest. In fact the degree of evolution of society can be traced to the quality of its laws, policies, procedures, ethics and morals that define and perpetuate its existence. A qualifying criticism that can be leveled against policy makers is that they tend to act in their own self interests rather than in the public interest. In other words, power tends to corrupt the best of individuals as they tend to seek what is best for them rather than society at large. F.A. Hayek saw these deficiencies in the mechanism of socialist economies as well as a capitalistic system. He argued that it was liberalism that needed to be included in the system to make it work better (Hayek, 23). Ronald Coase would interject that social costs would also enter into the equation of deciding the price of a good, as few entrepreneurs or capitalists have the capacity or talent to produce goods themselves (Coase, 12). The answer to this quandary would therefore lie in public and private watchdogs, professional and private agencies that make it their duty to point out the good and bad points of evolving laws and policies- much like a Board of Governance in a modern organization. The only caveat is that they should be answerable to no one but society at large. If we truly acted principally in the public interest and not just our own, we would soon realize that

Decision Making Models Essay Example for Free

Decision Making Models Essay Managers have the responsibility of making decisions within that guide and provide direction to their organizations. Although decisions may be made by individuals, groups, or teams, it is the manager who coordinates the process of decision making. Managers make use of various decision making models to effectively steer the organizations. It is worth to noting that there is no one model or style that is always right or perfect in decision making. This is so because different people are successful and satisfied using different styles. There are two major broad models of decision making. These are the deterministic and probalistic models. The deterministic models result in good decisions with good outcomes. The manager using this model is able to get what he/she expects i. e. the out come is risk free. In probabilistic decision models, the expected results are uncertain and thus making good decision may not necessarily lead to good outcomes. The probabilistic decision making model is characterized by more concern with both the outcome value and the amount of risk each decision carries. All other effective decision making models can be classified as either deterministic or probabilistic model. The other subcategories of decision making models are mechanical, mental/verbal, analytical, and simulation. These models are classified based on such characteristics such as types, evolution in time, and availability of information (McCall M. , and Kaplan, R. (2001). ). Mechanical models take physical appearance of the object. They are used to display or test the design of items ranging from new buildings to new products. Mental/verbal models are also important and can be used to verbalize decision strategies for more complicated decision making models. The other model is analytical model which is a mathematical model and aimed at simplification, abstraction of real systems to give insight and understanding to some interested aspect of reality (Klein G. , et al. , (Ed. ) (1993). The analytical models are applicable to the deterministic systems. A simulation model is the last model that I am going to address. Simulation models are the computerized duplications of real systems and are seen to be more realistic, especially when modeling dynamic/probabilistic systems e. g. as used in aviation industry. Current Application Decision making models have assisted managers a lot in making viable decisions within the organization. The models discussed above have been implemented by individuals within organizations to come up with good decisions. For instance, the mental/verbal model has been used to aid in problem identification, in the development phase as well as the selection phase of decision making. Decision support system (DSS) has found usage in air-line management. Decision support systems and the models have been used to make decision both under risk, certainty, and even conflict in organizations. Other applications of the decision making models include the DSS for fiber optic Network Architecture Design and application of technology to cardiovascular diagnosis. Decision making models have also been used in forecasting with examples such as regression models and Box-Jenkins models. In brief, the use of effective decision making models by mangers has helped organizations to improve their businesses as a result of quality decision. The various effective decision making models used by mangers have both benefits and drawbacks or challenges associated with them. Mechanical decision making models have the advantage of being usable for experimentation. Mechanical models are credited for clearly describing the problem of system under study and thus results in innovative designs alternatives for decision making. Mechanical models also have some challenges in that they do not contain explicit relationships between the decision alternatives and dependant variables or objectives Mental/verbal models make the manager unable to experiment with them and cannot be used to show how outcomes or measures of effectiveness change with decision alternatives. It is also not possible to show how the relationships change with the decision alternatives. These models have the advantage of being easy to understand. They are also based on many years of managerial experience (Klein G. , et al. , (Ed. ) (1993). The advantages of analytical models include that they aim at simplification and bring understanding to some interested aspect of reality. They can also help to test the effects of different decision alternatives, constants and parameter values more easily than with any other type of model. They can also analyze complex problems efficiently and concisely, and in many cases provide the cheapest way to analyze these problems. Although they are the most prevalent models in use today they may not be easily accepted by managers who lack training, experience and time to use them. Simulation models have a high degree of abstraction and as such many managers do not want to work with them. The reason of this could be lack of enough training in and exposure to those models. The other reason is that trained managers may lack sufficient time to pay attention to model. Despite these drawbacks the models are beneficial in the sense that in comparison to the mechanical model they can facilitate experimentation because both the independent variables, dependent variables, constants and parameters are explicitly related by language of mathematics.

Legalization of Marijuana Essay -- Illegal Drugs Narcotics essays rese

Marijuana   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marijuana is a big topic these days. Many people want to make sure that marijuana stays illegal. Yet they do not know all the facts about marijuana. They just think that marijuana is bad. I believe that marijuana should be made legal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, marijuana refers to the dried leaves and flowers of the cannabis plant, which contain the narcotic chemical THC at various potencies. It is smoked or eaten to produce the feeling of being "high". Marijuana has been used for thousands of years for medical, social, relaxation, and religious reasons. Several of our presidents are believed to have smoked it. Those presidents include Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and many others. John F. Kennedy smoked it to relieve his back pain. Also, many of America's great leaders were hemp farmers. This includes good ol' George Washington. Archeologists believe that cannabis was possibly the first plant farmed by humans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people think that marijuana is addictive, but this is false. Marijuana is less habit forming than either sugar or chocolate. When users take marijuana, it doesn't lead to violence-related crimes. Most users commit crime because they want to get marijuana, but this problem can be easily solved if the government would legalize marijuana again. When you take marijuana, it doesn't make you violent, in fact it leads to non-violence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There has never been a case that a person died from smoking marijuana. THC is one of the few chemic...

Environmental Degration

One of the major threat the planet faces today, environmental degradation is bound to make life difficult for all the lifeforms, including us humans, sooner or later. Studies reveal that the deterioration of environment is occurring at an alarming rate. In fact, the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations has enlisted it as one of the ten threats for humans. This issue shares space with problems like poverty, terrorism and civil war in the list, and this itself highlights the fact that we are heading for a certain disaster. What is Environmental Degradation?It is a process wherein the natural environment of the planet is degenerated to such an extent that the biodiversity and the general health of the planet is subjected to drastic reduction. In other words, this phenomenon can be defined as deterioration of the Earth's natural surroundings as a result of excessive exploitation of the available resources – these include water, air, flora, fauna, soil etc. The life on the planet is interwoven to such an extent that a decrease in a particular attribute triggers a domino effect on all the other attributes dependent on it.How is it Caused? ’; Environmental degradation can be attributed to various human activities and some natural processes, with the later having an insignificant share in the same. Most of the resources on the planet are vulnerable to depletion, and the rate at which we are exploiting them have already brought some of them to the brink of exhaustion. Exploitation of the fossil fuels is the best example of this phenomenon. Large-scale exploitation has depleted the fossil fuel reserves across the world, thus leaving us with no option but to find an alternate source of energy.Other human activities which have been contributing to this environmental issue include urbanization, overpopulation, deforestation, pollution, hunting, etc. What Does it Affect Us? Its effects are becoming more and more obvious in form of all those environment al issues affecting the planet. The hazardous waste let out by the industries tends to contaminate the water bodies in the vicinity, thus leaving the water unfit for drinking.Similarly, greenhouse gases, such as CFCs and carbon dioxide, let out in the atmosphere have a devastating effect on the environment, thus making the planet vulnerable to a range of problems, including global warming and climate change. On one hand, incessant agricultural activities have resulted in degradation of soil, while excessive deforestation to accumulate the growing population has resulted in degradation of air and water on the other hand. Humans have seldom sacrificed their necessities, but lately exploitation of resources to fulfill these necessities itself is taking a toll on the environment.How Can we Deal With it? At one point of time, the damage reaches a stage wherein the environment can't attain the required balance on its own. In such a situation, we humans need to step in, and ensure that the damage is curbed and balance is attained. Simple measures, such as conservation of electricity, use of alternative energy sources, avoiding the use of things that pollute the environment, soil conservation, etc. , can help in saving the environment from the threat of degradation. Environmentalists, the world over, are trying their best to save our environment, and we need to do our bit to make sure that they succeed.The need of the hour is to identify the causes of environmental degradation, and eliminate them one by one. We need to understand the fact that we are a part of the interwoven life system on the planet, and any problems, like environmental degradation and environmental pollution, are bound to affect us directly or indirectly. Though the disaster is not expected to happen tomorrow or a hundred years from now, that doesn't mean it will never happen at all. That being said, the onus is on us – the most intelligent species on the planet, to make sure that such proble ms are kept at bay.The main causes of environmental degradation are as follow; 1 Industrialization 2 Agricultural development 3 population growth 4 poverty 5 urbanization 6 Deforestation 7 transport development 8 market failure Causes of Environmental Degradation There is no doubt that man has caused environmental degradation. The causes of environmental degeneration are complex and should be addressed to, before it causes complete breakdown of the environment.Ads by Google BSc Psychology Online Study In Nigeria – UK Universities. Apply Online Now For Home Study www. rdi. co. k/psychology These are the days we keep hearing about global warming, melting of the glaciers, rising of the sea levels, etc. , all of which have been linked to environmental degradation. When the natural state of the environment is compromised upon it leads to breakdown of the biological diversity and harms the health of the environment. The process of environmental degradation can either be caused by n ature itself or it is man-made (which is a fact). If one has to compare the face of earth as it was hundreds of years ago to what it is today, we will see that environment has severely been compromised upon.When people look at environmental degradation, the intensity of the problem is not actually understood, but it could cause destruction of the human race itself. The causes of this problem vary a lot and it means depletion of the natural resources and disturbances in the natural cycle of things on the face of earth. Root Causes of Environmental Degradation The best case of environmental degradation can be seen in land degradation. There are climatic conditions responsible along with the human activities, which have brought about the degradation.The effects can be seen in the arid, semi arid and dry sub humid lands. One of the cause is over grazing of land. Along with that the green cover has depleted severely in almost all parts of the world. The forest cover has made way for huma n settlement. This has resulted in the temperatures increasing with each passing day. Since the forest covers have depleted, it has resulted in large-scale erosion, which in turn, is responsible for loss of nutrients from the soil. This has led the soil to becoming barren and in some cases also sterile.Since the forest cover has been lost, the winds now blow the top soil from the land, which also leads to degradation of the environment. Pollution is eating away into the environment. Here we are talking about air pollution, where toxic substances have made their way into the air, which has caused the air to become unhealthy. Air pollution is caused by a number of reasons. One of the most prominent cause is vehicle emissions. With each passing day, the number of vehicles are on the rise, which means increase in air pollution. The next cause is release of chemical waste from various factories.The waste often forms a layer in the atmosphere of the earth, which further affects the enviro nment. In environmental degradation we cannot forget the exploitation of fossil fuels. Since the time fossil fuels were discovered, they have been exploited. This has resulted in the fossil fuel reserves depleting all around the world, hence it has become important to find alternate sources of energy. When the fossil fuels are burnt, they release toxins into the air, which further aggravate environmental degradation. The underlying causes of environment going down way is overpopulation.The land reserve that is available on earth is finite. However, the demands are ever-increasing due to increasing population. There is only so much, that one can actually extract from the earth. This has led to widespread use of chemicals and other toxins to produce more food to feed the ever-increasing number of people. This has further caused depletion of the earth. With the use of chemicals the biological balance of earth has also been destroyed as the microorganisms have been killed. If one has to see the environmental degradation causes and effects, one will see that entire ecosystems have been destroyed.The ecosystem is made up of all the living and non living elements. However, when any one of them is destroyed, it leads to the destruction of the entire ecosystem as the balance is lost. No doubt plants and animals form an important feature of the ecosystem, but the microorganisms along with water sources and soil cannot be forgotten either. Industrial waste is known to be hazardous to the environment. The waste can be in the form of liquid waste, which pollute the rivers and cause harm to the ecosystem present in the rivers.It can also be solid waste, which is not biodegradable and pollutes the environment and leads to its degradation. We have already spoken about the industrial waste emitted into the air. After reading about the causes of environmental decadence, we can say that if the human race has to survive on the face of this earth, it is important that stringent me asures be taken up to arrest further deterioration of the environment. One will have to work towards conserving air, water and soil and try to restore balance in the ecosystem, which has been destroyed or is on the verge of destruction.In other words, one will have to work towards restoring natural habitats and make sure no further harm is done to the environment. By Bhakti Satalkar Published: 3/25/2011 * Environmental Degradation * How do Humans Affect the Environment * Current Environmental Issues * List of Environmental Problems * Simple Ways to Save the Environment * How does Mining Affect the Environment * How to Save the Environment * Globalization and Its Impact on the Environment * What are Environmental Ethics?* Environmental Issues List * How to Save Our Environment * Sustainable Living Ideas Causes of Overpopulation * Why are Birds and Fish Dying Read more at Buzzle: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/causes-of-environmental-degradation. html Environmental degradation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Eighty-plus years after the abandonment of Wallaroo Mines (Kadina, South Australia), mosses remain the only vegetation at some spots of the site's grounds Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife.It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. [1] Environmental degradation is one of the Ten Threats officially cautioned by the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as â€Å"The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs†. [2] Environmental degradation is of many types.When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degrad ed. | This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help us clarify the article; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2012) | Environmental Change and Human Health, a special section of World Resources 1998-99 in this report describes how preventable illnesses and premature deaths are still occurring in very large numbers. If vast improvements are made in human health, millions of people will be living longer, healthier lives than ever before.In these poorest regions of the world an estimated 11 million children, or about one in five, will not live to see their fifth birthday, primarily because of environment-related diseases. Child mortality is larger than the combined populations of Norway and Switzerland, and mostly due to malaria, acute respiratory infections or diarrhea — illnesses that are largely preventable. Contents [hide] * 1 Water deterioration * 1. 1 Climate change and temperature * 1. 2 Climate change and precipitation * 1. 3 Population g rowth* 1. 4 Agriculture * 1. Water management * 2 See also * 3 References * 4 External links| [edit] Water deterioration One major component of environmental degradation is the depletion of the resource of fresh water on Earth. Approximately only 2. 5% of all of the water on Earth is fresh water, with the rest being salt water. 69% of the fresh water is frozen in ice caps located on Antarctica and Greenland, so only 30% of the 2. 5% of fresh water is available for consumption. [3] Fresh water is an exceptionally important resource, since life on Earth is ultimately dependent on it.Water transports nutrients and chemicals within the biosphere to all forms of life, sustains both plants and animals, and molds the surface of the Earth with transportation and deposition of materials. [4] The current top three uses of fresh water account for 95% of its consumption; approximately 85% is used for irrigation of farmland, golf courses, and parks, 6% is used for domestic purposes such as indoo r bathing uses and outdoor garden and lawn use, and 4% is used for industrial purposes such as processing, washing, and cooling in manufacturing centers. 5] It is estimated that one in three people over the entire globe are already facing water shortages, almost one-fifth of the world’s population live in areas of physical water scarcity, and almost one quarter of the world’s population live in a developing country that lacks the necessary infrastructure to use water from available rivers and aquifers.Water scarcity is an increasing problem due to many foreseen issues in the future, including population growth, increased urbanization, higher standards of living, and climate change. 3] [edit] Climate change and temperature Climate change affects the Earth’s water supply in a large number of ways. It is predicted that the mean global temperature will rise in the coming years due to a number of forces affecting the climate, the amount of atmospheric CO2 will rise, and both of these will influence water resources; evaporation depends strongly on temperature and moisture availability, which can ultimately affect the amount of water available to replenish groundwater supplies.Transpiration from plants can be affected by a rise in atmospheric CO2, which can decrease their use of water, but can also raise their use of water from possible increases of leaf area. Temperature increase can decrease the length of the snow season in the winter and increase the intensity of snowmelt in warmer seasons, leading to peak runoff of snowmelt earlier in the season, affecting soil moisture, flood and drought risks, and storage capacities depending on the area. [6] Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during the summer.This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on glacial runoff to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas inc reasingly vulnerable to water shortages over time; an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water melting from glaciers in the summer, followed by a retreat in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and consequently the water supply every year as the size of these glaciers get smaller and smaller. 3]Thermal expansion of water and increased melting of oceanic glaciers from an increase in temperature gives way to a rise in sea level, which can affect the fresh water supply of coastal areas as well; as river mouths and deltas with higher salinity get pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater results in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers. 5] Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater,[7] as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of increased temperatures and increased precipitation around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits,[6] but a global dec rease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even after meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for,[7] which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.A rise in air temperature results in a rise in water temperature, which is also very significant in water degradation, as the water would become more susceptible to bacterial growth. An increase in water temperature can also affect ecosystems greatly because of a species’ sensitivity to temperature, and also by inducing changes in a body of water’s self-purification system from decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen in the water due to rises in temperature. [3] [edit] Climate change and precipitationA rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation, but because of increased runoff, floods, increased rates of soil erosion, and mass movement of land, a decline in water quality is probable, while water will car ry more nutrients, it will also carry more contaminants. [3] While most of the attention about climate change is directed towards global warming and greenhouse effect, some of the most severe effects of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and soil moisture.It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases. Climate models show that while some regions should expect an increase in precipitation,[6] such as in the tropics and higher latitudes, other areas are expected to see a decrease, such as in the subtropics; this will ultimately cause a latitudinal variation in water distribution. 3] The areas receiving more precipitation are also expected to receive this increase during their winter and actually become drier during their summer,[6] creating even more of a variation of precipitation distribution. Naturally, the distribution of precipitation acro ss the planet is very uneven, causing constant variations in water availability in respective locations. Changes in precipitation affect the timing and magnitude of floods and droughts, shift runoff processes, and alter groundwater recharge rates.Vegetation patterns and growth rates will be directly affected by shifts in precipitation amount and distribution, which will in turn affect agriculture as well as natural ecosystems. Decreased precipitation will deprive areas of water, causing water tables to fall and reservoirs and wetlands, rivers, and lakes to empty,[6] and possibly an increase in evaporation and evapotranspiration, depending on the accompanied rise in temperature. [5] Groundwater reserves will be depleted, and the remaining water has a greater chance of being of poor quality from saline or contaminants on the land surface. 3] [edit] Population growth The available fresh water being affected by climate is also being stretched across an ever-increasing global population. It is estimated that almost a quarter of the global population is living in an area that is using more than 20% of their renewable water supply; water use will rise with population while the water is also being aggravated by decreases in streamflow and groundwater caused by climate change.Even though some areas may see an increase in freshwater supply from an uneven distribution of precipitation increase, an increased use of water supply is expected. [8] An increased population means increased withdrawals from the water supply for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, the largest of these being agriculture,[9] believed to be the major non-climate driver of environmental change and water deterioration.The next 50 years will likely be the last period of rapid agricultural expansion, but the larger and wealthier population over this time will demand more agriculture. [10] Population increase over the last two decades, at least in the United States, has also been accompanied by a shift to an increase in urban areas from rural areas,[11] which concentrates the demand for water into certain areas, and puts stress on the fresh water supply from industrial and human contaminants. 3] Urbanization causes overcrowding and increasingly unsanitary living conditions, especially in developing countries, which in turn exposes an increasingly number of people to disease. About 79% of the world’s population is in developing countries, which lack access to sanitary water and sewer systems, giving rises to disease and deaths from contaminated water and increased numbers of disease-carrying insects. [12] [edit] AgricultureAgriculture is dependent on available soil moisture, which is directly affected by climate dynamics, with precipitation being the input in this system and various processes being the output, such as evapotranspiration, surface runoff, drainage, and percolation into groundwater. Changes in climate, especially the changes in precipitation and evapotr anspiration predicted by climate models, will directly affect soil moisture, surface runoff, and groundwater recharge. In areas with decreasing precipitation as predicted by the climate models, soil moisture may be substantially educed. [6] With this in mind, agriculture in most areas needs irrigation already, which depletes fresh water supplies both by the physical use of the water and the degradation agriculture causes to the water. Irrigation increases salt and nutrient content in areas that wouldn’t normally be affected, and damages streams and rivers from damming and removal of water. Fertilizer enters both human and livestock waste streams that eventually enter groundwater, while nitrogen, phosphorus, and other chemicals from fertilizer can acidify both soils and water.Certain agricultural demands may increase more than others with an increasingly wealthier global population, and meat is one commodity expected to double global food demand by 2050,[10] which directly aff ects the global supply of fresh water. Cows need water to drink, more if the temperature is high and humidity is low, and more if the production system the cow is in is extensive, since finding food takes more effort. Water is needed in processing of the meat, and also in the production of feed for the livestock.Manure can contaminate bodies of freshwater, and slaughterhouses, depending on how well they are managed, contribute waste such as blood, fat, hair, and other bodily contents to supplies of fresh water. [13] The transfer of water from agricultural to urban and suburban use raises concerns about agricultural sustainability, rural socioeconomic decline, food security, an increased carbon footprint from imported food, and decreased foreign trade balance. 9] The depletion of fresh water, as applied to more specific and populated areas, increases fresh water scarcity among the population and also makes populations susceptible to economic, social, and political conflict in a numbe r of ways; rising sea levels forces migration from coastal areas to other areas farther inland, pushing populations closer together breaching borders and other geographical patterns, and agricultural surpluses and deficits from the availability of water induce trade problems and economies of certain areas. 8]CLimate change is an important cause of involuntary migration and forced displacement[14] [edit] Water management The issue of the depletion of fresh water can be met by increased efforts in water management. [4] While water management systems are often flexible, adaptation to new hydrologic conditions may be very costly. [6] Preventative approaches are necessary to avoid high costs of inefficiency and the need for rehabilitation of water supplies,[4] and innovations to decrease overall demand may be important in planning water sustainability. 9] Water supply systems, as they exist now, were based on the assumptions of the current climate, and built to accommodate existing river flows and flood frequencies. Reservoirs are operated based on past hydrologic records, and irrigation systems on historical temperature, water availability, and crop water requirements; these may not be a reliable guide to the future. Re-examining engineering designs, operations, optimizations, and planning, as well as re-evaluating legal, technical, and economic approaches to manage water resources are very important for the future of water management in response to water degradation.Another approach is water privatization; despite its economic and cultural effects, service quality and overall quality of the water can be more easily controlled and distributed. Rationality and sustainability is appropriate, and requires limits to overexploitation and pollution, and efforts in conservation.Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires. 8. This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. 3] It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degrad Measuring Land degradation is a broad term that can be applied differently across a wide range of scenarios. There are four main ways of looking at land degradation and its impact on the environment around it: * A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land.This can be seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in potential productivity, or a loss or change in vegetative cover and soil nutrients. A decline in the lands â€Å"usefulness†: A loss or reduction in the lands capacity to provide resources for human livelihoods. This can be measured from a base line of past land use. * Loss of biodiversity: A loss of range of species or ecosystem complexity as a decline in the environmental quality. * Shifting ecological risk: increased vulnerability of the environment or people to destruction or crisis. This is measured through a base line in the form of pre-existing risk of crisis or destruction. A problem with measuring land degradation is that what one group of people call degradation, others might view as a benefit or opportunity.For example, heavy rainfall could make a scientific group be worried about high erosion of the soil while farmers could view it as a good opportunity to plant crops. [5] [edit] Causes Overgrazing by livestock can lead to land degradation Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes include:[citation needed] * Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation * Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices * Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting * Inappropriate irrigation[6] and overdrafting * Urban sprawl and commercial development Soil contamination including * Vehicle off-roading * Qua rrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals * Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as hedgerows and copses disappear * Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment * Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem * Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics [edit] Effects Soil erosion in a wheat field near Pullman, USA. The main outcome of land degradation is a substantial reduction in the productivity of the land.[7] The major stresses on vulnerable land include: * Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water Soil acidification and the formation of acid sulfate soil resulting in barren soil * Soil alkalinisation owing to irrigation with water containing sodium bicarbonate leading to poor soil structure and reduced crop yields * Soil salination in irrigated land requiring soil salinity control to reclaim the land [8] * Soil waterlogging in irrigated land which calls for some form of subsurface land drainage to remediate t he negative effects [8] * Destruction of soil structure including loss of organic matter Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublands—to obtain timber, fuelwood and other products—at a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe. Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is a significant factor in Afghanistan.Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation include shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, fertilizer use, and a host of possible problems arising from faulty planning or management of irrigation. They are a major factor in Sri Lanka and the dominant one in Bangladesh. The role of population factors in land degradat ion processes obviously occurs in the context of the underlying causes. In the region, in fact, it is indeed one of the two along with land shortage, and land shortage itself ultimately is a consequence of continued population growth in the face of the finiteness of land resources. In the context of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils. High population density is not always related to land degradation. Rather, it is the practice s of the human population that can cause a landscape to become degraded. Populations can be a benefit to the land and make it more productive than it is in its natural state.Land degradation is important factor of internal displacement in many African and Asian countries[9] Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sewn. [edit] Sensitivity and resilience Sensitivity and resilience are measures of the vulnerability of a landscape to degradation. These two factors combine to explain the degree of vulnerability. [5] Sensitivity is the degree to which a land system undergoes change due to natural forces, human intervention or a combination of both.Resilience is the ability of a landscape to absorb change, without significantly altering the relationship between the relative importance and numbers of individuals and species that compose the community. [10] It also refers to the ability of the region to return to its original state after being changed in some way. The resilience of a landscape can be increased or decreased through human interaction based upon different methods of land-use management. Land that is degraded becomes less resilient than undegraded land, which can lead to even further degration through shocks to the landscape. [edit] Climate change Significant land degradation from seawater inundation, particularly in river deltas and on low-lying islands, is a potential hazard that was identified in a 2007 IPCC report. citation needed] As a result of sea-level rise from climate change, salinity levels can reach levels where agriculture becomes impossible in very low lying areas.Journal ofLand Degradation & DevelopmentVol 24 (6 Issues in 2013)Edited by: Professor Artemi Cerdà  Prin t ISSN: 1085-3278 Online ISSN: 1099-145X| * Description Land Degradation & Development is an international journal which seeks to promote rational study of the recognition, monitoring, control and rehabilitation of degradation in terrestrial environments. The journal focuses on: * what land degradation is; * what causes land degradation; * the impacts of land degradation * the scale of land degradation; * the history, current status or future trends of land degradation; * avoidance, mitigation and control of land degradation; * remedial actions to rehabilitate or restore degraded land; * sustainable land management.Land degradation may be defined as the loss of utility or potential utility through the reduction of or damage to physical, social, cultural or economic features, and/or reduction of ecosystem diversity. There may be a single cause or a complex mix of causes, some may be biogeophysical ('natural'), some socioeconomic ('human') and it is quite possible that cause(s) will be indirect, perhaps cumulative and difficult to identify. A major challenge is to learn how interactions between development and environment can be better managed to increase prospects for ecologically and socially sustainable improvements to human well-being.Development means attempts to improve human well-being or environmental quality in rich and poor nations on a sustained basis (sustainable development). Papers are invited on scientific, social, economic, political and historical aspects of terrestrial environmental degradation. Also welcome are analyses presenting forecasts of trends, case studies and discussion on management, planning and policy-making relating to the promotion of ecological sustainability and the counteraction of land degradation. In addition to original research papers, regional and thematic reviews, both invited and submitted, will be included, as will short communications, book reviews and applications of remote sensing and computer te chniques.The members of the Editorial Board are drawn from a comprehensive range of disciplines and nationalities. Together with a strict refereeing procedure this will ensure Land Degradation & Development maintains a high standard and presents material from a wide range of disciplines, from interdisciplinary study and with an international coverage. The subject matter will include the following topics: ENVIRONMENTS Degradation of: deserts, savannas, rangelands; forests, woodlands, tundra; mountain environments; wetlands, floodlands; farmland, irrigated land; sand-dunes; coastal zones, islands, urban, peri-urban environments. In polar, temperate, subtropical and tropical regions.PROCESSES #39;Desertification', rangeland degradation; soil degradation (compaction, loss of fertility, reduced organic matter, pollution, waterlogging, acidification, salinization, alkalinization, 'laterite' and hard-pan formation); erosion; degradation of vegetation cover, 'deforestati on'; impoverishment of wildlife habitats, loss of species. CAUSES Climatic change; sea-level variation; drought; storms; earth processes (geomorphological, volcanicity, natural leaching of soils); bushfires; degradation as a consequence of: industry, urban growth, agrochemicals, agricultural modernization, energy production/consumption, mining, warfare, refugees or migrants, breakdown of traditional landuse strategies, altered communications, legislative changes, demographic changes, administrative causes, institutional causes, social or economic causes. PERCEPTIONSPerception/recognition of degradation, attitudes toward degradation; ethics and land degradation; indicators; monitoring, surveillance; assessment of significance; establishing past, present and future trends. IMPACTS Physical, biological, social, cultural and economic impacts (direct, indirect, cumulative); long-term and short-term impacts; assessment of significance; aesthetic impact of degradation. Water pollution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Raw sewage and industrial waste in the New River as it passes from Mexicali to Calexico, California. Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e. g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater).Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. * 1 Introduction * 2 Categories * 2. 1 Point sources * 2. 2 Nonpoint sources * 3 Groundwater pollution * 4 Causes * 4. 1 Pathogens * 4. 2 Chemical and other contaminants * 4. 3 Thermal pollution * 5 Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants * 6 Measurement * 6. 1 Sampling * 6. 2 Physical testing * 6. Chemical testing * 6. 4 Biological test ing * 7 Control of pollution * 7. 1 Domestic sewage * 7. 2 Industrial wastewater * 7. 3 Agricultural wastewater * 7. 4 Construction site stormwater * 7. 5 Urban runoff (stormwater) * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 External links| Introduction Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1][2] and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. 2] An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. [3] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution,[4] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. [5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, develo ped countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. 6]Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water. Categories Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated. [7] Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surf ace water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin. Point sourcesPoint source pollution – Shipyard – Rio de Janeiro. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U. S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes. [8] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites. [9] Nonpoint sources Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source.NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agric ultural lands. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from â€Å"sheet flow† over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. Groundwater pollution See also: Hydrogeology Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex.Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. [7] By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into s oil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model.Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc. ) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.Oxy gen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e. g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species. [10] Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. [11] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem.Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations. Pathogens A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow . Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have caused human health problems include: * Burkholderia pseudomallei * Cryptosporidium parvum * Giardia lamblia * Salmonella * Novovirus and other viruses * Parasitic worms (helminths). [12][13] High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges. 14]This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms. [15] Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations. Chemical and other contaminants Muddy river polluted by sed iment. Photo courtesy of United States Geological Survey. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Organic water pollutants include:* Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform * Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease * Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds * Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff[16] * Tree and bush debris from logging operations * Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. * Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser. * Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) * Trichloroethylene * Perchlorate * Various chemi cal compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.A garbage collection boom in an urban-area stream in Auckland, New Zealand. Inorganic water pollutants include: * Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants) * Ammonia from food processing waste * Chemical waste as industrial by-products * Fertilizers containing nutrients–nitrates and phosphates—which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[16] * Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[16][17] and acid mine drainage * Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites. Macroscopic Pollution in Parks Milwaukee, WIMacroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed â€Å"floatables† in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as: * Tras h or garbage (e. g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters * Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets * Shipwrecks, large derelict ships. Thermal pollution Main article: Thermal pollution Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence.Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters. Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from t he base of reservoirs into warmer rivers. Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants See also: Marine pollution Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans.In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force.Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e. g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation. A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris.The North Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called â€Å"Great Pacific Garbage Patch† that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation. Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especi ally over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals).Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that mo ves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water.In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants. Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature.Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events. [18] Sampling Sampling of water for physical or chemical test ing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason â€Å"grab† samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity. Further information: Water quality#Sampling and Measurement Physical testing Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e. g. , total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Chemical testing See al so: water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds.Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),[19]:102 chemical oxygen demand (COD),[19]:104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides. Biological testing Main article: Bioindicator Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. Control of pollution Domestic sewage Main article: Sewage treatment Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity. Domestic sewage is 99. 9 percent pure water, while the other 0. 1 percent are pollutants.Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. [20] In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U. S. , most of these plants are operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i. e. , secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrial wastewater. 21]Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including: * utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[22] * repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[15] * increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option). A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil.Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment system (e. g. in a rural community). Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e. g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e. g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system.Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with: * cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation * cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer * cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes. [23] Agricultural wastewaterMain article: Agricultural wastewater treatment Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa Nonpoint source controls Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. [10] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. [24][25]:pp. 4-95–4-96 Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge.Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. [25]:p. 2-9 Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients. [24][25]:pp. 4-37–4-38 To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality. [26] Feedlot in the United States Point source wastewater treatment Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are call ed concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to increasing government regulation. 27][28] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland.Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement. Construction site stormwater Silt fence installed on a construction site. Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of: * erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and * sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences. [29] Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of: * spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e. g. for concrete washout) and structures such as o verflow controls and diversion berms. [30] Urban runoff (stormwater) Main article: Urban runoff See also: Green infrastructure Retention basin for controlling urban runoff Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff.These techniques, called best management practices (BMPs) in the U. S. , may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions. 31] Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e. g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides). [32] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices. [33][34] Thermal pollution from runoff can be cont rolled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream. [31]:p. 5-58 *